Yet these cognitive improvements may be attributable merely to the timing of the test further along in the school year in the second wave, and the substantial accumulation of knowledge children exhibit by virtue of the additive gains they experience as the school year progresses (Fitzpatrick, Grissmer, and Hastedt 2011). Association between Depression Severity and Physical Function among Chinese Nursing Home Residents: The Mediating Role of Different Types of Leisure Activities. Such green spaces can lower temperatures by providing shade and water bodies equipped with drinking fountains and opportunities for passive recreational activities. Just as sunnier weather may allow us more time outside and the opportunity to be physically active, it varies systematically with the school year, produces a critically important secosteroid in humans, and so on. /ColorSpace /DeviceRGB For instance, we might expect less sunlight during a storm spell to result in more sedentary time at home, and less time engaging in physical activity outdoors. (2005) found that time outdoors moderates the relationship between weather and affective and cognitive outcomes, which suggests that behavior (i.e., going outside, rather than general abstract satisfaction with positive weather conditions) is the linchpin in the causal process. Eyles, D. W., F. Feron, X. Cui, J. P. Kesby, L. H. Harms, P. Ko, J. J. McGrath, and T. H. J. Burne. /Length 11 0 R /Height 42 1991). Noelke, Clemens, Mark McGovern, Daniel J. Corsi, Marcia P. Jiminez, Ari Stern, Ian Sue Wing, and Lisa Berkman. TABLE 3 Table 3. As the catchment and reservoir are the first and foremost barriers to protect drinking water quality, these ecological impacts may have a considerable influence on water quality. /Type /XObject We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. Health benefits of serious involvement in leisure activities among older Korean adults. Using extensive qualitative evidence, Lareau (2000, 2002) describes how the leisure time of children in middle-class families is highly structured and organized compared to the more informal, family-oriented working-class home environment. stream This would merely alter the causal pathway, such that physiologically endogenous vitamin synthesis acts as the causal mechanism between behavior and performance instead of through some other physical or psychological channel. While recent work that attempts to econometrically isolate the causes of achievement supports the importance of intangibles like attitude and disposition, cognition still appears to be the primary determinant of economic success on both individual and national scales (Hanushek 2013; Lundborg, Nystedt, and Rooth 2014). The .gov means its official. In this sense, playing outside or watching television can be seen as extensions of the formal-informal dichotomy many sociologists sketch out in examining patterns in achievement and childhood trajectory. /Filter /DCTDecode WebThese recreational activities can reduce the stress that may be caused by adverse environmental conditions and also make a positive contribution to the mental and physical health of the individual and the development of his social life (Ozer and Cavuolu, 2014). Persons interested in obtaining PSID Restricted Data Files should contact PSIDHelp@isr.umich.edu. Lundborg, Petter, Paul Nystedt, and Dan-Olof Rooth. 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We use weekday measures of time use, and necessarily exclude summer vacation as the CDS was administered only during the school year. 2011). Further, the whether moved control is insignificant in every one of our specifications, while restricting the sample to never-movers produces substantively similar results, with slightly larger coefficients. << With the emergence of smartphones and tablets, many children may be consuming media while they are primarily waiting for their parents at school, being driven home, and so forth. Meta-analyses of research on the effects of acute exercise intervention suggest a positive effect on executive functioning (i.e., skills that allow for planning, multitasking, self-control, etc. /BitsPerComponent 8 * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests). endobj Another consideration is why we did not see similar effects using verbal outcomes (see online appendix table S2 for broad reading results). stream Our conventional FE estimates, however, render null effects across the board (though removing the education controllength of school day plus homeworkproduces significant results for sedentary behavior and screen time in the expected direction [estimates not shown]). This work was supported by the MacArthur Foundation Connected Learning Research Network. WebOther studies have also indicated that participating in moderate-in-tensity leisure activities (e.g., walking) can effectively reduce psychological anxiety and improve mood (Fox, 1999; Roe & Aspinall, 2011; Scully, Kremer, Meade, Graham, & Dudgeon, 1998). There is also the related question of what cognition as it is customarily rendered in the social sciences signifies. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Forests are a natural environment often used for such activities as jogging, hiking, dog walking, mountain biking, or horse riding. We may see differences among our subsamples because, for example, higher-SES kids are engaging in relatively productive or cognitively active sedentary behaviors like conversing with their siblings as opposed to sitting alone watching television. >> Fernald, Anne, Virginia A. Marchman, and Adriana Wiesleder. Other longitudinal observational studies like the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) can also be leveraged to examine these relationships, though each dataset has its relative weaknesses (e.g., the inability for researchers to obtain geocoded data in Add Health). << These experimental results illustrate that the benefits of exercise may partly reflect a direct dose-response relationship that can manifest in the short or medium term, rather than simply reflecting long-term differences in well-being. For instance, some have provocatively argued that the primary driver of labor market success and attendant social reproduction is not cognition or skills per se but the attitudes and personality traits that are inculcated in the higher social strata (Bowles and Gintis 2002). The links between pollution and cognitive development are rather clear and well established empirically, with prenatal exposures being particularly damaging (Peterson et al. While we make every attempt to account for these factors conceptually and empirically, because one cannot prove that the exclusion criteria are met, the possibility remains that there is some latent bias that drives our results. Fitzpatrick, Maria D., David Grissmer, and Sarah Hastedt. It is also important to remember that our findings consist of local average treatment effects, where only children that actually accepted the treatmentcompliers, who are induced to go outside in sunny weather but who otherwise might not, for examplecontribute to our estimates. 2015). Leech, Rebecca M., Sarah McNaughton, and Anna Timperio. Our results also have implications for achievement gaps documented in the social science literature. Differences patterned on race are significantly narrower than they were in the mid-twentieth century by any reasonable estimate, yet there is evidence that this convergence has stagnated since the 1990s (Neal 2006), and may be attributable to cohort-specific gains that manifested in the 1970s and 1980s (Chay, Guryan, and Mazumder 2009). Recent research, however, suggests that vitamin D deficiency among blacks may be an artifact of conventional testing methods, and that levels of bioavailable 25-hydroxyvitamin D are similar to whites due to the presence of a related hormone marker that is not customarily measured (Powe et al. National Library of Medicine Because the NLDAS measures sunlight at the ground level, in practice it also acts as a proxy for broader weather patterns, picking up precipitation, overcast skies, and so on. In this paper we use individual-level fixed effects coupled with a quasi-experimental research design, instrumenting active and sedentary behaviors with sunlight in trying to determine the cognitive effects of time use. We begin by leveraging the longitudinal aspect of the data and employ an individual fixed-effects (FE) approach, which zeros out any time-invariant factors. 2014 Jul 23;9:24616. doi: 10.3402/qhw.v9.24616. In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury Zimmerman, Frederick J., and Dimitri A. Christakis. Another crucially important potential source of bias arises from missing data. 2014). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (, Racialization and Reproduction: Asian Immigrants and Californias Twentieth-Century Eugenic Sterilization Program, Review of Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration, Review of: Making Gender Salient: From Gender Quota Laws to Policy, Review of Why Baby Boomers Turned from Religion: Shaping Belief and Belonging, 19452021, Review of Liberty Road: Black Middle-Class Suburbs and the Battle Between Civil Rights and Neoliberalism, Childhood Inequality, Time Use, and Cognitive Growth, Cognition: Practical Significance and Empirical Measurement, Supplementary material is available at Social Forces online, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Another possibility is that the effects we find in FE-IV specifications reflect relationships among compliers in our natural experiment that are not common across the CDS sample (more on this later in the results). Dalton Conley is the Henry Putnam University Professor in Sociology and a faculty affiliate at the Office of Population Research and the Center for Health and Wellbeing. Psychometric properties of Leisure Satisfaction Scale (LSS)-short form: a Rasch rating model calibration approach. It may be the case that population-level estimates (i.e., average treatment effects) are lower than what we find here, if, for example, there are declining marginal returns to going outside for outdoor-oriented children, or adaptations to staying indoors for their indoor-oriented counterparts. Jacob, Brian, Lars Lefgren, and Enrico Moretti. /Subtype /Image stream Not exercising. 83 2016). For practical purposes, we believe our findings lend further support to the general notion that, ceteris paribus, physical activity seems to generally be a positive factor in child development, while sedentary and screen behavior seem to evince the opposite effect. Much of the literature on child development is animated by long-standing gaps in academic achievement and cognitive assessment. Khn, Simone, Tobias Gleich, Robert C. Lorenz, U. Lindenberger, and Jurgen Gallinat. Recent reviews have illustrated that low-SES children are significantly more likely to engage in sedentary behavior than their peers in the United States and other high-income countries (Leech, McNaughton, and Timperio 2014; Mielke et al. Interestingly, many of the same systematic differences between classes that characterize enrollment in music lessons or museum attendance are mirrored in sedentary activity and media consumption. Still, we suspect the reason may lie not in the structure of the data but in how math and verbal ability change over the course of the school year. Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses. Yet other experimental research has found that even very short exposures (i.e., minutes, not hours) to high-intensity media can depress the executive functioning in children (Lillard and Peterson 2011), negatively mirroring related RCT study findings in physical activity. The PSID is a nationally representative, longitudinal study, with respondents surveyed annually from 1968 to 1997, and biennially thereafter up to the present. Recent research suggests that while there does appear to be a seasonal pattern to cognitive processing presumably based in circadian rhythms, these do not manifest in actual differences in measurable ability (Meyer et al. >> Another possibility is that restrictions in sunlight depress cognitive performance through the channel of negative mood or depression, popularized in the psychological literature as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). Additionally, we include a suite of household shocks which are linked in the literature to either childhood development or other fundamentals like family SES status, including indicators of an additional birth (Sandberg and Rafail 2014), the departure of a parent from the household (Tach 2015), and whether the family changed residence from a prior wave (Jelleyman and Spencer 2008). Thus for certain subpopulations, narrowing time use differences among children may aid in helping shrink gaps in assessment and academic achievement more generally. The extant evidence illustrates that activity (and inactivity) may be related both to physical changes in the brain itself, along with cognitive improvements that can positively affect test performance through numerous channelsincluding those that relate to behavior (e.g., ability to focus) rather than intellectual skill per se. Some Practical Clarifications of Multiple Imputation Theory, Adolescent Cognitive Skills, Attitudinal/Behavioral Traits and Career Wages, Economic Growth in Developing Countries: The Role of Human Capital, The Dynamics of Criminal Behavior: Evidence from Weather Shocks, Does Cultural Capital Really Affect Academic Achievement? These consist of the total time on the diary day doing: 1) Any leisurely physical activity that is not formal or organized (e.g., walking or hiking, but not baseball practice); 2) Any outside activity (including most forms of physical activity); 3) Any passive sedentary activity (hanging out, relaxing, or media consumption, but not reading or homework); 4) Television shows or movies across any platform; 5) Video games across any platform; and 6) Total screen time (media, gaming, and any additional non-educational computer or handheld use). eCollection 2014. Front Public Health. Small-scale experimental studies have also shown that gaming may positively affect spatial reasoning and executive functioning (Khn et al. Behav Sci (Basel). Fairlie, Robert W., and Jonathan Robinson. For instance, differences in sedentary behavior alone account for about 15 and 10 percent of the black/white and caregiver college/no college assessment gaps in our data. We merge a restricted access version of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement (CDS), longitudinally collected from 1997 to 2007, with a database of over three million county-day observations of sunlight. 2017). Effects of Leisure Participation on Life Satisfaction in Older Korean Adults: A Panel Analysis. Other work finds that temperatures above 70F tend to induce negative emotions, while even particularly cold weather (<20F) is associated with higher subjective well-being (Noelke et al. Meyer, Christelle, Vincenzo Muto, Mathieu Jaspar, Caroline Kuss, Erik Lambot, Sarah L. Chellappa, Christian Degueldre, Evelyne Balteau, Andr Luxen, Benita Middleton, Simon N. Archer, Fabienne Collette, Derk-Jan Dijk, Pierre Maquet, and Gilles Vandewalle. 2015). This suggests that even halving the time spent engaging in sedentary behavior or consuming electronic media could manifest in significant math gains. Still, because screen time and sedentary behavior are so intertwined in the American context, much of this work focuses on physical outcomes like body mass index, and extant findings on cognition are rather limited and equivocal. 2010; Zimmerman and Christakis 2005). Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. His current work applies econometric methods for causal inferencenamely, a natural experiment frameworkto genome-wide data available in social surveys to model gene-by-environment interaction effects. endobj /Length 9 0 R Here, we exploit the robust association between weather patterns and a select subset of leisure activities in attempting to draw a clearer connection between behavior and cognition, a crucially important factor in child development and achievement. We also see variation in effect sizes stratified by sex and race. These observations are nevertheless preliminary and provisional, as researchers have tended to focus on the effects of physical behavior on cognition later in the life course (i.e., older adults) rather than in childhood (Prakash et al. Yet other research which specifically examines the impact of educational programming (e.g., Sesame Street) finds positive and significant effects, signaling the importance of content (Mares and Pan 2013).
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